res built according to scientific principles, from irrigation and drainage systems to rocket-launching facilities. 土木工程學(xué)作為老的工程技術(shù)學(xué)科，是指規(guī)劃，設(shè)計，施工及對建筑環(huán)境的管理。此處的 環(huán)境包括建筑符合科學(xué)規(guī)范的所有結(jié)構(gòu)，從灌溉和排水系統(tǒng)到火箭發(fā)射設(shè)施。 Civil engineers build roads, bridges, tunnels, dams, harbors, power plants, water and sewage systems, hospitals, schools, mass transit, and other public facilities essential to modern society and large population concentrations. They also build privately owned facilities such as airports, railroads, pipelines, skyscrapers, and other large structures designed for industrial, commercial, or residential use. In addition, civil engineers plan, design, and build complete cities and towns, and more recently have been planning and designing space platforms to house self-contained communities. 土木工程師建造道路，橋梁，管道，大壩，海港，發(fā)電廠，給排水系統(tǒng)，醫(yī)院，學(xué)校，公共 交通和其他現(xiàn)代社會和大量人口集中地區(qū)的基礎(chǔ)公共設(shè)施。 他們也建造私有設(shè)施， 比如飛機 場，鐵路，管線，摩天大樓，以及其他設(shè)計用作工業(yè)，商業(yè)和住宅途徑的大型結(jié)構(gòu)。此外， 土木工程師還規(guī)劃設(shè)計及建造完整的城市和鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)， 并且近一直在規(guī)劃設(shè)計容納設(shè)施齊全的 社區(qū)的空間平臺。 The word civil derives from the Latin for citizen. In 1782, Englishman John Smeaton used the term to differentiate his nonmilitary engineering work from that of the military engineers who predominated at the time. Since then, the term civil engineering has often been used to refer to engineers who build public facilities, although the field is much broader 土木一詞來源于拉丁文詞“公民” 。在 1782 年，英國人 John Smeaton 為了把他的非軍事工 程工作區(qū)別于當(dāng)時占優(yōu)勢地位的軍事工程師的工作而采用的名詞。 自從那時起， 土木工程學(xué) 被用于提及從事公共設(shè)施建設(shè)的工程師，盡管其包含的領(lǐng)域更為廣闊。 Scope. Because it is so broad, civil engineering is subdivided into a number of technical specialties. Depending on the type of project, the skills of many kinds of civil engineer specialists may be needed. When a project begins, the site is surveyed and mapped by civil engineers who locate utility placement—water, sewer, and power lines. Geotechnical specialists perform soil experiments to determine if the earth can bear the weight of the project. Environmental specialists study the project’s impact on the local area: the potential for air and groundwater pollution, the project’s impact on local animal and plant life, and how the project can be designed to meet government requirements aimed at protecting the environment. Transportation specialists determine what kind of facilities are needed to ease the burden on local roads and other transportation networks that will result from the completed project. Meanwhile, structural specialists use preliminary data to make detailed designs, plans, and specifications for the project. Supervising and coordinating the work of these civil engineer specialists, from beginning to end of the project, are the construction management specialists. Based on information supplies by the other specialists, construction management civil engineers estimate quantities and costs of materials and labor, schedule all work, order materials and equipment for the job, hire contractors and subcontractors, and perform other supervisory work to ensure the project is completed on time and as specified.
領(lǐng)域。因為包含范圍太廣，土木工程學(xué)又被細分為大量的技術(shù)專業(yè)。不同類型的工程需要多 種不同土木工程專業(yè)技術(shù)。一個項目開始的時候，土木工程師要對場地進行測繪，定位有用 的布置，如地下水水位，下水道，和電力線。巖土工程專家則進行土力學(xué)試驗以確定土壤能 否承受工程荷載。環(huán)境工程專家研究工程對當(dāng)?shù)氐挠绊�，包括對空氣和地下水的可能污染�?對當(dāng)?shù)貏又参锷畹挠绊懀?以及如何讓工程設(shè)計滿足政府針對環(huán)境保護的需要。 交通工程專 家確定必需的不同種類設(shè)施以減輕由整個工程造成的對當(dāng)?shù)毓泛推渌煌ňW(wǎng)絡(luò)的負擔(dān)。 同 時，結(jié)構(gòu)工程專家利用初步數(shù)據(jù)對工程作詳細規(guī)劃，設(shè)計和說明。從項目開始到結(jié)束，對這 些土木工程專家的工作進行監(jiān)督和調(diào)配的則是施工管理專家。根據(jù)其他專家所提供的信息， 施工管理專家計算材料和人工的數(shù)量和花費， 所有工作的進度表， 訂購工作所需要的材料和 設(shè)備，雇傭承包商和分包商，還要做些額外的監(jiān)督工作以確保工程能按時按質(zhì)完成。 Throughout any given project, civil engineers make extensive use of computers. Computers are used to design the project’s various elements (computer-aided design, or CAD) and to manage it. Computers are necessity for the modern civil engineer because they permit the engineer to efficiently handle the large quantities of data needed in determining the best way to construct a project. 貫穿任何給定項目， 土木工程師都需要大量使用計算機。 計算機用于設(shè)計工程中使用的多數(shù) 元件（即計算機輔助設(shè)計，或者 CAD）并對其進行管理。計算機成為了現(xiàn)代土木工程師的 必備品，因為它使得工程師能有效地掌控所需的大量數(shù)據(jù)從而確定建造一項工程的佳方 法。 Structural engineering. In this specialty, civil engineers plan and design structures of all types, including bridge, dams, power plants, supports for equipment, special structures for offshore projects, the United States space program, transmission towers, giant astronomical and radio telescopes, and many other kinds of projects. Using computers, structural engineers determine the forces a structure must resist: its own weight, wind and hurricane forces, temperature changes that expand or contract construction materials, and earthquakes. They also determine the combination of appropriate materials: steel, concrete, plastic, asphalt, brick, aluminum, or other construction materials. 結(jié)構(gòu)工程學(xué)。在這一專業(yè)領(lǐng)域，土木工程師規(guī)劃設(shè)計各種類型的結(jié)構(gòu)，包括橋梁，大壩，發(fā) 電廠， 設(shè)備支撐， 海面上的特殊結(jié)構(gòu)， 美國太空計劃， 發(fā)射塔，龐大的天文和無線電望遠鏡， 以及許多其他種類的項目。結(jié)構(gòu)工程師應(yīng)用計算機確定一個結(jié)構(gòu)必須承受的力：自重，風(fēng)荷 載和颶風(fēng)荷載，建筑材料溫度變化引起的脹縮，以及地震荷載。他們也需確定不同種材料如 鋼筋，混凝土，塑料，石頭，瀝青，磚，鋁或其他建筑材料等的復(fù)合作用。 Water resources engineering. Civil engineers in this specialty deal with all aspects of the physical control of water. Their projects help prevent floods, supply water for cities and for irrigation, manage and control rivers and water runoff, and maintain beaches and other waterfront facilities. In addition, they design and maintain harbors, canals, and locks, build huge hydroelectric dams and smaller dams and water impoundments of all kinds, help design offshore structures, and determine the location of structures affecting navigation. 水利工程學(xué)。 土木工程師在這一領(lǐng)域主要處理水的物理控制方面的種種問題。 他們的項目用 于幫助預(yù)防洪水災(zāi)害，提供城市用水和灌溉用水，管理控制河流和水流物，維護河灘及其他 濱水設(shè)施。此外，他們設(shè)計和維護海港，運河與水閘，建造大型水利大壩與小型壩，以及各 種類型的圍堰，幫助設(shè)計海上結(jié)構(gòu)并且確定結(jié)構(gòu)的位置對航行影響。 Geotechnical engineering. Civil engineers who specialize in this field analyze the properties of soils and rocks that support structures and affect structural behavior. They evaluate and work to
minimize the potential settlement of buildings and other structures that stems from the pressure of their weight on the earth. These engineers also evaluate and determine how to strengthen the stability of slopes and fills and how to protect structures against earthquakes and the effects of groundwater. 巖土工程學(xué)。 專業(yè)于這個領(lǐng)域的土木工程師對支撐結(jié)構(gòu)并影響結(jié)構(gòu)行為的土壤和巖石的特性 進行分析。 他們計算建筑和其他結(jié)構(gòu)由于自重壓力可能引起的沉降， 并采取措施使之減少到 小。 他們也需計算并確定如何加強斜坡和填充物的穩(wěn)定性以及如何保護結(jié)構(gòu)免受地震和地 下水的影響。 Environmental engineering. In this branch of engineering, civil engineers design, build and supervise systems to provide safe drinking water and to prevent and control pollution of water supplies, both on the surface and underground. They also design, build, and supervise projects to control or eliminate pollution of the land and air. These engineers build water and wastewater treatment plants, and design air scrubbers and other devices to minimize or eliminate air pollution caused by industrial processes, incineration, or other smoke-producing activities. They also work to control toxic and hazardous wastes through the construction of special dump sites or the neutralizing of toxic and hazardous substances. In addition, the engineers design and manage sanitary landfills to prevent pollution of surrounding land. 環(huán)境工程學(xué)。 在這一工程學(xué)分支中， 土木工程師設(shè)計， 建造并監(jiān)視系統(tǒng)以提供安全的飲用水， 同時預(yù)防和控制地表和地下水資源供給的污染。 他們也設(shè)計， 建造并監(jiān)視工程以控制甚至消 除對土地和空氣的污染。 他們建造供水和廢水處理廠， 設(shè)計空氣凈化器和其他設(shè)備以小化 甚至消除由工業(yè)加工、 焚化及其他產(chǎn)煙生產(chǎn)活動引起的空氣污染。 他們也采用建造特殊傾倒 地點或使用有毒有害物中和劑的措施來控制有毒有害廢棄物。 此外， 工程師還對垃圾掩埋進 行設(shè)計和管理以預(yù)防其對周圍環(huán)境造成污染。 Transportation engineering. Civil engineers working in this specialty build facilities to ensure safe and efficient movement of both people and goods. They specialize in designing and maintaining all types of transportation facilities, highways and streets, mass transit systems, railroads and airfields, ports and harbors. Transportation engineers apply technological knowledge as well as consideration of the economic, political, and social factors in designing each project. They work closely with urban planners, since the quality of the community is directly related to the quality of the transportation system. 交通工程學(xué)。從事這一專業(yè)領(lǐng)域的土木工程師建造可以確保人和貨物安全高效運行的設(shè)施。 他們專門研究各種類型運輸設(shè)施的設(shè)計和維護，如公路和街道，公共交通系統(tǒng)，鐵路和飛機 場， 港口和海港。 交通工程師應(yīng)用技術(shù)知識及考慮經(jīng)濟， 政治和社會因素來設(shè)計每一個項目。 他們的工作和城市規(guī)劃者十分相似，因為交通運輸系統(tǒng)的質(zhì)量直接關(guān)系到社區(qū)的質(zhì)量。 Pipeline engineering. In this branch of civil engineering, engineers build pipelines and related facilities which transport liquids, gases, or solids ranging from coal slurries (mixed coal and water) and semiliquid wastes, to water, oil, and various types of highly combustible and noncombustible gases. The engineers determine pipeline design, the economic and environmental impact of a project on regions it must traverse, the type of materials to be used-steel, concrete, plastic, or combinations of various materials-installation techniques, methods for testing pipeline strength, and controls for maintaining proper pressure and rate of flow of materials being transported. When hazardous materials are being carried, safety is a major consideration as well. 渠道工程學(xué)。在土木工程學(xué)的這一支鏈中，土木工程師建造渠道和運送從煤泥漿(混合的煤 和水)和半流體廢污，到水、石油和多種類型的高度可燃和不可燃的氣體中分離出來的液體，
氣體和固體的相關(guān)設(shè)備。 工程師決定渠道的設(shè)計， 項目所處地區(qū)必須考慮到的經(jīng)濟性和環(huán)境 因素，以及所使用材料的類型——鋼、混凝土、塑料、或多種材料的復(fù)合 ——的安裝技術(shù)， 測試渠道強度的方法， 和控制所運送流體材料保持適當(dāng)?shù)膲毫土魉佟?當(dāng)流體中攜帶危險材 料時，安全性因素也需要被考慮。 Construction engineering. Civil engineers in this field oversee the construction of a project from beginning to end. Sometimes called project engineers, they apply both technical and managerial skills, including knowledge of construction methods, planning, organizing, financing, and operating construction projects. They coordinate the activities of virtually everyone engaged in the work: the surveyors; workers who lay out and construct the temporary roads and ramps, excavate for the foundation, build the forms and pour the concrete; and workers who build the steel framework. These engineers also make regular progress reports to the owners of the structure. 建筑工程學(xué)。土木工程師在這個領(lǐng)域中從開始到結(jié)束監(jiān)督項目的建筑。他們，有時被稱為項 目工程師，應(yīng)用技術(shù)和管理技能，包括建筑工藝，規(guī)劃，組織，財務(wù)，和操作項目建設(shè)的知 識。事實上，他們協(xié)調(diào)工程中每個人的活動：測量員，布置和建造臨時道路和斜坡，開挖基 礎(chǔ)，支模板和澆注混凝土的工人，以及鋼筋工人。這些工程師也向結(jié)構(gòu)的業(yè)主提供進度計劃 報告。 Community and urban planning. Those engaged in this area of civil engineering may plan and develop community within a city, or entire cities. Such planning involves far more than engineering consideration; environmental, social, and economic factors in the use and development of land and natural resources are also key elements. These civil engineers coordinate planning of public works along with private development. They evaluate the kinds of facilities needed, including streets and highways, public transportation systems, airports, port facilities, water-supply and waste water-disposal systems, public buildings, parks, and recreational and other facilities to ensure social and economic as well as environmental well-being. 社區(qū)和城市規(guī)劃。 從事土木工程這一方面的工程師可能規(guī)劃和發(fā)展一個城市中的社區(qū)， 或整 個城市。此規(guī)劃中所包括的遠遠不僅僅為工程因素，土地的開發(fā)使用和自然資源環(huán)境的，社 會的和經(jīng)濟的因素也是主要的成分。 這些土木工程師對公共建設(shè)工程的規(guī)劃和私人建筑的發(fā) 展進行協(xié)調(diào)。他們評估所需的設(shè)施，包括街道，公路，公共運輸系統(tǒng)，機場，港口，給排水 和污水處理系統(tǒng)， 公共建筑， 公園， 和娛樂及其他設(shè)施以保證社會， 經(jīng)濟和環(huán)境地協(xié)調(diào)發(fā)展。 Photogrametry, surveying, and mapping. The civil engineers in this specialty precisely measure the Earth’s surface to obtain reliable information for locating and designing engineering projects. This practice often involves high-technology methods such as satellite and aerial surveying, and computer-processing of photographic imagery. Radio signal from satellites, scans by laser and sonic beams, are converted to maps to provide far more accurate measurements for boring tunnels, building highways and dams, plotting flood control and irrigation project, locating subsurface geologic formations that may affect a construction project, and a host of other building uses. 攝影測量， 測量學(xué)和地圖繪制。 在這一專業(yè)領(lǐng)域的土木工程師精確測量地球表面以獲得可靠 的信息來定位和設(shè)計工程項目。這一 方面包括高工藝學(xué)方法，如衛(wèi)星成相，航拍，和計算 機成相。來自人造衛(wèi)星的無線電信號，通過激光和音波柱掃描被轉(zhuǎn)換為地圖，為隧道鉆孔， 建造高速公路和大壩，繪制洪水控制和灌溉方案，定位可能影響建筑項目的地下巖石構(gòu)成， 以及許多其他建筑用途提供更精準的測量。 Other specialties. Two additional civil engineering specialties that are not entirely within the scope of civil engineering but are essential to the discipline are engineering management and engineering teaching.
其他的專門項目。 還有兩個并不完全在土木工程范圍里面但對訓(xùn)練相當(dāng)重要的附加的專門項 目是工程管理和工程教學(xué)。 Engineering management. Many civil engineers choose careers that eventually lead to management. Others are able to start their careers in management positions. The civil engineer-manager combines technical knowledge with an ability to organize and coordinate worker power, materials, machinery, and money. These engineers may work in government—municipal, county, state, or federal; in the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers as military or civilian management engineers; or in semiautonomous regional or city authorities or similar organizations. They may also manage private engineering firms ranging in size from a few employees to hundreds. 工程管理。 許多土木工程師都選擇終通向管理的職業(yè)。 其他則能讓他們的事業(yè)從管理位置 開始。土木工程管理者結(jié)合技術(shù)上的知識和一種組織能力來協(xié)調(diào)勞動力，材料，機械和錢。 這些工程師可能工作在政府——市政、國家、州或聯(lián)邦；在美國陸軍軍團作為軍隊或平民的 管理工程師；或在半自治地區(qū)，城市主管*或相似的組織。他們也可能管理規(guī)模為從幾個 到百個雇員的私營工程公司。 Engineering teaching. The civil engineer who chooses a teaching career usually teaches both graduate and undergraduate students in technical specialties. Many teaching civil engineers engage in basic research that eventually leads to technical innovations in construction materials and methods. Many also serve as consultants on engineering projects, or on technical boards and commissions associated with major projects. 工程教學(xué)。 通常選擇教學(xué)事業(yè)的土木工程師教授研究生和本科生技術(shù)上的專門項目。 許多從 事教學(xué)的土木工程師參與會導(dǎo)致建筑材料和施工方法技術(shù)革新的基礎(chǔ)研究。 多數(shù)也擔(dān)任工程 項目或技術(shù)領(lǐng)域的顧問，和主要項目的代理。
