【強調句構成及處理】
●強調句的構成:
It is +被強調部分+that( who ) +句子其他成分
【解析】現(xiàn)在時間為is;過去時間為was;被強調部分為動詞外的任何成分;強調對象為人則用who或者that;強調對象為物則只能用that;句子的其他成分為正常語序。
●強調句的處理方法:
去掉強調格式后,將被強調部分還原到句子中。
例1:It was she , a Baltimore printer , who published the first offcial copies of the Declaration , the first included the names of its signers and therefore heralded the support of all thirteen colonies .
【解析】
去掉強調格式后,還原句子為:She , a Baltimore printer , published the first official copies of the Declaration , the first copies that included the names of its signers and therefore heralded the support of all thirteen colonies 被強調對象為主與。
【譯文】
她,巴爾的摩的印刷商,出版了第一本官方的《獨立宣言》在這個版本里包含有每個簽署者的名字,這樣一來就表明了全部十三個殖民地的支持。
例2:Thus , in the American economic system it is the demand of individual consumers , coupled with the desire of businessmen to maximize profits and the desire of individuals to maximize their incomes , that together determine what shall be produced and how resources are used to produce it .
【解析】
去掉強調格式以后,句子還原為:Thus , in the American economic system ,the system , the demand of individual consumers , coupled with the desirs of businessmen to maximize profits and the desire of individuals to maximize their incomes , together determine what shall be produced and how resources are used to produce it .被強調對象為主語。
【譯文】于是,在美國的經(jīng)濟系統(tǒng)中,個人消費者的需求,商人利潤化的*及個人收入化的渴求,共同決定了應該生產(chǎn)什么產(chǎn)品,以及如何利用資源來成產(chǎn)這些產(chǎn)品。
例3:It was just a decade before this that many drug companies had found their vitamin sales skyrocketing and were quick to supply practicing physicians with generous samples of vitamins and literature extolling the virtue of supplementation for a variety of health-related conditions.
【it的5種用法】
It分為兩種情況,一種是指代性it,另一種則為非指代性it。在此為大家介紹it的幾種用法。
指代性it一般是指人稱代詞it, it作人稱代詞時可指代事物、動物、嬰兒、未知的人或一件事。
例句1:It’s a theory to which many economists subscribe, but in practice it often leaves railroads in the position of determining which companies will flourish and which will fail. 這句話中第二個it就是指代前面的theory。這是一個許多經(jīng)濟學家贊同的理論,但是在實際中,它往往會使得鐵路處于一個決定哪些公司會興旺,哪些公司會衰敗的地位中。
例句2: Until these issues are resolved, a technology of behavior will continue to be rejected, and with it possibly the only way to solve our problems. 在這句話中,it指代a technology of behavior will continue to be rejected 這一情況。除非這些問題得到解決,研究行為的技術手段就會繼續(xù)受到排斥,解決問題的方法也可能隨之受到排斥。
第二種情況是非指代性it。非指代性it是相對于作人稱代詞的it而言的。他們往往沒有具體意義上的主語,它用于表示氣候、溫度、時間、地點、距離等。非指代性it常作seem, appear, look, happen, occur, follow等動詞的主語,構成特定的句型。
例句:From an analysis of the hot-spot population it appears that the African plate is stationary and that it has not moved during the past 30 million years.這句中it沒有實際意義,為非指代性用法,that引導表語從句。從熱點人口分析中可以看出,非洲板塊是靜止不動的,而且在過去的三百萬年中也從未移動過。
當然,在考研考試中,it的重難點更加具體和明確。
it 做先行詞。it做形式主語或者形式賓語。It作形式主語時,往往放在句首,將真正的主語(動詞不定式、動名詞、從句)放在之后。其中it可作形式主語指代不定式,這時常見的謂語有:take, pay, make, cost, require, feel, annoy, need等。另外,it形式主語指代It形式主語指代從句,而且主要形式為It is+a.+than; It is+n.+that; It is+done+that; It+vi+that;
例如:It is difficult to the point of impossibility for the average reader under the age of forty to imagine a time when high-quality arts criticism could be found in most big-city newspaper.
It做形式賓語是放在謂語動詞與賓語補足語之間,指代不定式、動名詞、從句等。后接it作形式賓語的謂語動詞有:feel, consider, find, believe, make, take, imagine, suppose, think, deem, regard, count等。
引導強調句的it。同學們所熟悉的強調句型中,它的基本形式就是“it+be的某種形式+that/who從句”。當被強調部分是人時須用who, 其他情況用that。例句:Curbs on business-method claims would be a dramatic about-face, because it was the Federal Circuit itself that introduced such patents with its 1998 decision in the so-called State Street Bank case, approving a patent on a way of pooling mutual-fund assets. 在because從句中就運用了it was ….that的強調句型,強調部分為the Federal Circuit itself. 對商業(yè)方法專利申請的限制將會是一個巨大的改變,因為這些專利正是聯(lián)邦巡回法院自己在1998年審理一個被稱作“美國道富銀行”的案件時提出的,判決中巡回法院批準了一項共同基金資產(chǎn)集資方法的專利。
【動詞完成時態(tài)的用法和選擇】
在學習考研英語謂語動詞時,我們常常會遇到謂語動詞的四種變化,分別是時態(tài)、語態(tài)、情態(tài)和*(即虛擬語氣)。其中非常重要而又容易混淆的便是動詞時態(tài)的用法和選擇。好多情況下是同學們記不住各種時態(tài)的細微差別,或是老師講解時可以分清怎么去使用,過一段時間卻又忘記了。出現(xiàn)這種情況主要是因為同學們沒有抓住時態(tài)的關鍵點,一是時,一是態(tài)。時指時間,包括過去,過去將來,現(xiàn)在,將來。態(tài)指狀態(tài),有完成(全部完成)和未完成(部分完成)兩種狀態(tài)。本文我們就時態(tài)中比較難的而且是同學們易出錯的完成時態(tài)進行重點講解。
態(tài),顧名思義,是指一件事存在的狀態(tài),有完成(全部完成)和未完成(部分完成)兩種。而我們在學習時一說起完成時態(tài),同學們經(jīng)常想到的是事情完成了這一種狀態(tài),常常忽略了第二種情況,那就是事情沒有全部完成,只是完成了一部分。這種情況在生活中也是常常出現(xiàn)的,比如說我需要閱讀5篇文章,現(xiàn)在我讀完3篇文章了。這種情況就屬于部分完成。所以,以后我們在說到完成時態(tài)時,也要考慮到事情可能沒有做完,只是完成了一部分這種情況。換言之,完成時就是截止到某個時間,匯報一下事情完成的狀況,可以是全部完成,也可以是部分完成,F(xiàn)在完成時是指截止到現(xiàn)在,匯報事情完成的狀況;過去完成時是指截止到過去某點,匯報事情完成的狀況;將來完成時是指截止到將來某點,匯報事情完成的狀況。下面就以現(xiàn)在完成時為例來講解一下完成時的用法。
現(xiàn)在完成時,時間截點為現(xiàn)在,即看待問題的角度是站在現(xiàn)在往前看完成的狀況,動作發(fā)生在現(xiàn)在的之前,可能做完了,也可能沒有做完。在說話者心目中,動作所產(chǎn)生的影響或后果,所造成的狀態(tài),在截止時間的當時或稍后依然存在,或仍有聯(lián)系。這也是說話者關心的焦點。包括以下三種情況:
1.一個發(fā)生在時間截止點之前的動作,或者是在時間截止點之前已完成的動作; Jane has gone to London. 珍妮已去倫敦。(表示現(xiàn)在之前已完成的動作)
2.一個在時間截止點之前重復的動作;We have had four tests so far this semester. 這學期,我們到現(xiàn)在為止已經(jīng)考過四次了。(表示現(xiàn)在以前重復發(fā)生的行為)
3.一個一直進行到時間截止點的動作;I have known him for more than ten years. 我認識他已經(jīng)十多年了。(表示現(xiàn)在以前一直進行的行為)
在現(xiàn)在完成時中,動作是否在時間截止點之后仍要進行不是我們關心的焦點。如果要表示動作在時間截止點之后仍要進行需用完成進行時。如:He has waited for 3 hours.表示可能繼續(xù)等下去,也可能不再等了。而He has been waiting for 3 hours.強調沒有完成,仍要繼續(xù)等下去。
從上面的分析可以發(fā)現(xiàn),現(xiàn)在完成時中,動作或行為發(fā)生在現(xiàn)在的以前,它們所產(chǎn)生的影響或后果,所造成的狀態(tài),到現(xiàn)在依然存在,或與現(xiàn)在仍有聯(lián)系,F(xiàn)在完成時就像是一座橋梁把現(xiàn)在和過去連接起來。而一般過去時單純陳述過去發(fā)生的事情。如They worked together as partners for ten years. 他們曾作為合伙人一塊工作過十年。(兩人現(xiàn)已不在一起工作)They have worked together as partners for ten years. 他們作為合伙人已經(jīng)一起工作過十年了。(可能仍在合作,也可能剛剛結束合作)They have been working together as partners for ten years. 他們作為合伙人已經(jīng)一起工作十年了。(還要繼續(xù)合作)
【as引導的各類從句】
as主要有兩種詞性,分別為介詞和連詞。as作為介詞時,用法和語義較單一,其含義為“作為”。但是as作為連詞詞性時,其用法和功能較多,可以引導各類從句,而對其所引導的從句類型的識別也就成為了as理解的難點。在此對as引導各類從句進行匯總,并對各類從句的特點給出具體總結。
一、as引導定語從句
as引導定語從句時,既可以引導限定性定語從句,又可以引導非限定性定語從句。區(qū)分as引導定語從句和其它從句的關鍵特征是:as引導定語從句時在從句中做成分,通常做主語或賓語。
1、as引導限定性定語從句。
如從句所修飾的名詞前有such、the same、as出現(xiàn),后面的定語從句將由as引導,形成such...as,the same...as,as…as這樣的固定結構,譯為“和……一樣”。
例1:I never heard such stories as he told.
我從未聽過他所講的那樣的故事。
例2:He’ll repeat such questions as are discussed in the book.
他將重復書中討論過的問題。
例3:They made the same mistake as others would have made on such an occasion.
他們犯了和其他人在這種場合下會犯的同樣錯誤。
2、as引導非限定性定語從句。
as引導非限定性定語從句,往往指代一整句話,通常表示“正如”的意思。as引導的非限制性定語從句位置相對比較靈活,可以位于先行詞之前、之后或中間。
例:As is known to everybody, the moon travels round the earth.
眾所周知,月亮繞著地球轉。
二、as引導時間狀語從句
as引導時間狀語從句多用于口語,強調“同一時間”或“一先一后”,有時還有“隨著”的含義。
例1:As I was going out, it began to rain.
當我出門時,開始下雨了。(as強調兩個動作緊接著發(fā)生,不強調下雨的特定時間。)
例2:As time goes on, he will understand what I said.
隨著時間的推移,他會理解我所講的話。
三、as引導原因狀語從句
as表示“因為”,與because相比,較口語化,所表達的原因語氣較弱,所表的原因比較明顯,或是已知的事實。
例1:As the weather is so bad, we have to delay our journey.
因為天氣太糟糕,我們不得不推遲旅行。
例2:Any new source of energy will be very welcome, as there is already a shortage of petroleum.
任何新型能源都將大受歡迎,因為石油已經(jīng)出現(xiàn)短缺。
四、as引導方式狀語從句
as表示“按照”,“以……方式”,“像……一樣”,“正如”。
例:Do as the Romans do when in Rome. 入鄉(xiāng)隨俗
注:as在引導方式狀語從句時,還常出現(xiàn)在一個固定的類比結構中:(just) as …, so…。這一句型表示類比,基本含義是“正如……,所以……”。
例:Just as virtue is its own reward, so is vice its own punishment.
善有善報,惡有惡報。
五、as引導讓步狀語從句
as可以表示“盡管”,“雖然”,引導讓步狀語從句,但必須構成倒裝。讓步狀語從句倒裝規(guī)則有兩類:
1、 形容詞/副詞/分詞/名詞(無冠詞)/介詞短語等+as+主語+謂語動詞,主句。
例1:Much as I like you, I couldn’t live with you.
我盡管很喜歡你,卻不能和你在一起生活。
例2:Child as he is, he knows to help others.
盡管他是個孩子,他懂得幫助別人。
2、動詞原形+as+主語+助動詞(may/might, will/would, can/could, do/does/did),主句。
例:Try as we may, we cannot sense directly the television signal sent out from the broadcast station.
盡管我們費了很大的勁,也無法直接覺察發(fā)射臺發(fā)出的電視信號。
六、as引導比較狀語從句
as引導比較狀語從句,其基本結構是as…as。前一個as是副詞,后一個as是比較狀語從句的連詞。否定結構為not so much … as …。
例1:Small as it is, the ant is as much a creature as are all other animals on the earth.
盡管螞蟻很小,但是它同地球上的任何其他動物一樣,也是一種動物。
例2:It was not so much the many blows he received as the lack of fighting spirit that led to his losing the game.
與其說是他受到了許多打擊,還不如說是缺乏斗志使他輸?shù)袅吮荣悺?/p>
【語法一致原則】
語法一致原則是指句子的主語和謂語在語法形式上一致,即通常情況下,謂語動詞的單復數(shù)形式依主語的單復數(shù)形式而定, 主語為單數(shù)形式時謂語動詞用單數(shù)形式, 主語為復數(shù)形式時謂語動詞也用復數(shù)形式。具體內容請看下文。
1. 以單數(shù)名詞或代詞、動詞不定式短語、動名詞短語或從句作主語時,謂語動詞一般用單數(shù)形式;主語為復數(shù)時,謂語動詞用復數(shù)形式。如:His father is working on the farm. / To study English well is not easy. / What he said is very important for us all. / The children were in the classroom two hours ago. / Reading in the sun is bad for your eyes.
注意:由what引導的主語從句,后面的謂語動詞多數(shù)情況用單數(shù)形式,但若表語是復數(shù)或what從句是一個帶有復數(shù)意義的并列結構時,主句的謂語動詞用復數(shù)形式。如:What I bought were three English books. / What I say and do is (are) helpful to you.
2. 由連接詞and或both …… and連接起來的合成主語后面,要用復數(shù)形式的謂語動詞。如:Lucy and Lily are twins. / She and I are classmates. / The boy and the girl were surprised when they heard the news. / Both she and he are Young Pioneers.
注意:(1)若and所連接的兩個詞是指同一個人或物時,它后面的謂語動詞就應用單數(shù)形式。如:The writer and artist has come. (2)由and連接的并列單數(shù)主語前如果分別有no, each, every more than a (an) , many a (an)修飾時,其謂語動詞要用單數(shù)形式。如:Every student and every teacher was in the room. / No boy and no girl likes it.
3. 主語為單數(shù)名詞或代詞,盡管后面跟有with, together with, except, but, like, as well as, rather than, more than, no less than, besides, including等引起的短語,謂語動詞仍用單數(shù)形式;若主語為復數(shù),謂語用復數(shù)形式。如:Mr. Green, together with his wife and children, has come to China. / Nobody but Jim and Mike was on the playground. / She, like you and Tom, is very tall.
4. either, neither, each, every 或no +單數(shù)名詞和由some, any, no, every構成的復合不定代詞,都作單數(shù)看待。如:Each of us has a new book. / Everything around us is matter.
注意:(1)在口語中當either或neither后跟有“of+復數(shù)名詞(或代詞)”作主語時,其謂語動詞也可用復數(shù)。如:Neither of the texts is (are) interesting. (2)若none of后面的名詞是不可數(shù)名詞,它的謂語動詞就要用單數(shù);若它后面的名詞是復數(shù),它的謂語動詞用單數(shù)或復數(shù)都可以。如:None of us has (have) been to America.
5. 在定語從句時,關系代詞that, who, which等作主語時,其謂語動詞的數(shù)應與句中先行詞的數(shù)一致。如:He is one of my friends who are working hard. / He is the only one of my friends who is working hard.
6. 如果集體名詞指的是整個集體,它的謂語動詞用單數(shù);如果它指集體的成員,其謂語動詞就用復數(shù)形式。這些詞有family, class, crowd, committee, population, audience等。如:Class Four is on the third floor. / Class Four are unable to agree upon a monitor.
注意:people, police, cattle等名詞一般都用作復數(shù)。如:The police are looking for the lost child.
7. 由“a lot of, lots of, plenty of, the rest of, the majority of + 名詞”構成的短語以及由“分數(shù)或百分數(shù)+名詞”構成的短語作主語,其謂語動詞的數(shù)要根據(jù)短語中后面名詞的數(shù)而定。如:There are a lot of people in the classroom. / The rest of the lecture is wonderful. / 50% of the students in our class are girls.
注意:a number of“許多”,作定語修飾復數(shù)名詞,謂語用復數(shù);the number of“……的數(shù)量”,主語是number,謂語用單數(shù)。
8. 在倒裝句中,謂語動詞的數(shù)應與其后的主語一致。如:There comes the bus. / On the wall are many pictures. / Such is the result. / Such are the facts.
【邏輯意義一致原則】
邏輯意義一致就是謂語動詞的數(shù)必須與主語的意義一致(因有時主語的形式是單數(shù),但意義卻為復數(shù);有時主語形式為復數(shù),而意義卻為單數(shù))。具體請看下文。
1. what, who, which, any, more, all等代詞可以是單數(shù),也可是復數(shù),主要靠意思來決定。如:Which is your bag? / Which are your bags? / All is going well. / All have gone to Beijing.
2. 表示“時間、重量、長度、價值”等的名詞的復數(shù)作主語時,謂語動詞通常用單數(shù)形式,這是由于作主語的名詞在概念上是一個整體,如:Thirty minutes is enough for the work.
3. 若英語是書名、片名、格言、劇名、報名、國名等的復數(shù)形式,其謂語動詞通常用單數(shù)形式。如:“The Arabian Nights” is an interesting story-book.
4. 表數(shù)量的短語“one and a half”后接復數(shù)名詞作主語時,其謂語動詞可用單數(shù)形式(也可用復數(shù)。如:One and a half apples is (are) left on the table.
5. 算式中表示數(shù)目(字)的主語通常作單數(shù)看待,其謂語動詞采用單數(shù)形式。如:Twelve plus eight is twenty. / Fifty-six divided by eight is seven.
6. 一些學科名詞是以 –ics 結尾,如:mathematics, politics, physics 以及news, works等,都屬于形式上是復數(shù)的名詞,實際意義為單數(shù)名詞,它們作主語時,其謂語動詞要用單數(shù)形式。如:The paper works was built in 1990. / I think physics isn‘t easy to study.
7. trousers, glasses, clothes, shoes, 等詞作主語時,謂語用復數(shù),但如果這些名詞前有a (the) pair of等量詞修飾時,謂語動詞用單數(shù)。如:My glasses are broken. / The pair of shoes under the bed is his.
8. “定冠詞the + 形容詞或分詞”,表示某一類人時,動詞用復數(shù)。